Much More Than Words

Language

Language development

There is a wide range of what is considered to be normal in a child's language development. No two children say or understand exactly the same things at the same ages. However, there is a series of language stages that most children pass through. The following provides a guide to the ages and stages of development. It is a representative sample of things to consider and is not intended as an exhaustive list of skills at each age.

Expressive and receptive language checklist

Birth - 12 months

(adapted from `Exchanges 2' - Department of Education, Queensland, Australia)

3 - 6 months

6 - 8 months

• attends to one thing at a time
• begins to learn how one thing affects another
• early turn-taking with actions; eg, smiling in response to adult greetings
• understands general meaning carried by intonation
• laughing, crying, cooing, babbling

8 - 12 months

• imitates adult's behaviour; eg, waving
• has understanding of object permanence (looks for things which are out of sight)
• understands because of clues from situation
• enjoys repetitive games like peek-a-boo
• turn taking with sounds
• develops intention to communicate
• initiates interaction
• `talks' to adults using sound combinations
• babbling, experimenting with sounds

12 months onwards

• begins to understand how to affect others
• learning words that are most meaningful
• communicates to be social, to ask and to show

One to three years

By 18 months

• single word stage ...uses up to 50 words
• jargon common; eg, unintelligible made up words or sentences
• word strings; eg, mum ... car ... keys
• pseudo 2 word utterances; eg, allgone
• dances or bounces to music
• follows simple one step commands; eg, pick up the cup (situation, gesture and intonation clues are important for understanding)
• looks at person talking
• identifies object in a book
• looks for objects that are out of sight

By 2 years

• two words together; eg, bye teddy, daddy gone, more drink
• uses words to request desired objects rather than just to name
• can ask questions - what's that? where?
• answers question - what's this?
• names objects and pictures spontaneously
• responds to simple two part instructions; eg, put teddy in the bed
• uses negatives ... no
• points to some body parts when asked; eg, eyes, ears, nose
• use of jargon decreases

By 3 years

• uses sentences of three or more words - not grammatically correct or complete; eg, me push car
• has a vocabulary of several hundred words
• talks about things not present; eg, things that happened in the past
• uses some adjectives (eg, big) and adverbs (eg, fast)
• talks about the actions of others
• adds information to that of others
• asks an increasing number of questions
• answers questions; eg, what's daddy doing? - where?
• refers to self with full name
• enjoys repeating words and sounds
• imitates simple actions
• can listen attentively to short stories and books

Four to five years

By 4 years

• sentences become increasingly complex - expansion in the number of words per sentence
• great increase in the number and type of words used
• answers whose, who and why questions
• uses location words - in, on, under
• refers increasingly to events and objects in the past or future
• understands some concepts of time such as now, soon, and later
• asks who, what, where, and why questions
• recognises common everyday sounds
• carries out series of two related commands; eg, put your fork down and pick up your spoon
• can identify some objects by use; eg, which one do we write with?

By 5 years

• uses complete sentences - minor grammatical immaturities are common; eg, runned, mouses
• has basic understanding of concepts related to number, size, weight, colour, texture, distance, position and time - understands the concepts of tallest, biggest, same, more, on, in, under
• understands the order of daily routines; eg, breakfast before lunch, lunch before dinner, dinner before bed time
• adapts language to listener's level of understanding; eg, to baby sister: daddy go bye-bye; to mother: daddy went to the shop to get a paper
• asks and answers who, what, when, why, and where questions
• follows two unrelated directions; eg, put your milk on the table and get your coat on
• refers increasingly to the activities of others
• links past and present events
• asks meanings of words - tries to use new words, not always correctly
• classification skills and reasoning ability is developing

Social use of language

A child's ability to use language socially is an important skill which, just like other language components, develops gradually over time. Communication involves much more than words and there is a lot for a child to learn. The social nature of language is reflected within all strands of Te Whāriki.

(Please note, this diagram can be viewed more clearly in the attachments at the end of this web page).

Social use of language checklist

Before age two years

Children's use of language is usually erratic and disjointed. The child is not yet aware of the listener's needs and will often talk about things of which the listener has no experience or knowledge. Parents and other conversation partners usually end up doing most of the `work' in making sense of the interactions.

By age three years

The child has learned many things about conversations. The child will initiate dialogue and has learned how to obtain and hold a listener's attention. Conversational turn-taking is developing. Knowledge of how to respond to someone is also growing; eg, answering simple questions with an appropriate answer.

From age 3 - 5 years

This is a period of great development of social language skills. There is a big increase in awareness of social factors which make for a successful conversation; eg, correct forms of address and polite terms such as please and sorry. The child learns to anticipate when the conversation might break down; eg, they may repeat utterances which are unclear.

Making a communication observation

Making a record of a child's communication skills can be useful. Observe the child in a range of situations; eg, during mat time, indoor and outdoor play, with friends, with adults, during group activities. You may want to comment on the child's ability to; establish eye contact, initiate and maintain conversations, ask and respond to questions.

Observation sample record sheet

Child's Name: ..................

Date of Birth: ....................

Date: .............................

Record observations here:

Parent/caregivers comments:

How does this child's communication compare with the norms and expectations for his/her age and culture?

Observations made by: ..............................

Taking a Language Sample

A language sample focuses mainly on expressive language, what the child is actually saying, and should be considered as part of the child's communication.

Record your observation at a time when the child is talking to other children or to adults. Write down everything the child says for about 10 minutes. Make sure you record only the words the child actually says (it can be easy to mistakenly add in words). It may be easier to tape-record the child's language and transcribe it later. As this is a language sample you are focusing only on the words said, not the pronunciation of them. While taking the sample try to be as unobtrusive as possible. You may be able to sit somewhere within earshot without the child being aware of what you are doing.

(Below is a language sample record sheet. Also refer to, and print out, the attachment at the end of this document called "Much More than Words (PDF)" for a copy of a language sample record sheet).

Language Sample Record Sheet

Child's Name: ..................

Date of Birth: ....................

Context: ..........................

Date of Sample: .............................

For example, playing with toys, talking to peer, helping with cooking etc

Sample taken by: ................................................................................

General strategies to encourage language development

Use meaningful language and activities:

• Always follow the child's lead and talk and comment about the activities or topic he/she is focusing on at the time. Language is learned best when it is interesting and relevant.

Be aware of background noise and distractions:

• Children's ability to `tune in' to something when there are other things competing for their attention.

Gain their attention before speaking:

• This can be by speaking their name or, when culturally appropriate, a touch or establishing eye contact.

Keep it short and simple:

• Use language at the appropriate level of complexity; eg, if a child is only speaking in single words, your utterances should be at the same level or slightly longer, two words. Eg 'car' or 'red car'

Use specific vocabulary:

• Keep your utterances clear and succinct. A child is more likely to respond appropriately if you tell them, "put your cup on the bench", rather than "put it over there".

Create the need to talk:

• Ensure that talking is necessary for the child. While we are often able to anticipate or identify the child's need wait until an attempt to verbalise the problem is made, before responding.

Allow time to respond:

• Pause for longer than is usual. Give the child an opportunity to reply to you.

Give positive reinforcement:

• Always reward communication attempts by responding to the child's intended meaning even if the form of communication is not correct. 

Repeat, repeat, repeat:

• Children need to hear the same language many times before they will remember it or use it themselves.

Reduce the number of questions:

• Try to keep the number of questions you ask the child to a minimum, especially those requiring just one word answers such as "What's this?". Instead, focus on feeding in language by making comments about what you and/or the child are doing.

Specific language development techniques

While the following are useful techniques to use with all children in a centre they can make a particular difference when used in a focused way with an individual child.

Commenting

• Talk about what you and the child are doing
• Focus on what the child is doing, not saying
• Speak to the child at his/her language level or just above it
• Simplify your language to short, simple but complete sentences so the child can understand everything that is said
• Talk about things happening here and now
• Remember; you are commenting, not asking questions.

Expansion

You are now expanding the child's talking to a more adult form. This technique does not require the child to talk. You are modelling language to help them move forward in their language development. The child is not required to repeat your expansion.

car - a car

them pigs - they're pigs

want drink - want a drink

truck - red truck or the truck is going.

The following techniques require only a minimal response and may be useful to encourage language from a reluctant speaker.

Choice questions

• This technique demands a response from the child
• The child is given two alternatives using questions
• This is a useful technique to elicit one word responses or complex sentences; eg,
  • "Is he walking or running?"
  • "Is it in or on?"
  • "Is he sitting in the tree or climbing up the tree?"

  Be sure to use questions at the language level of the child.

  Sentence completion

  This technique demands a response by requiring the child to complete your sentence.

  You can use this technique from single words through to phrases; eg,

  The boy is in the ......"bath"

  The boy is in ......."the bath"

  The boy is ......."in the bath"

  • Help the child finish the sentence by using gestures and facial expression
  • Remember, only use this technique to elicit words/phrases you know the child already knows.

  Encouraging a reluctant speaker to talk

  Many children arriving in new situations are reluctant to talk. It is normal for a child to take time to feel comfortable in a new setting. Speaking requires confidence, especially in front of a group.

  It is important to give the child time for settling in without pressure to communicate verbally. However, we hope that, sooner or later, the child will want to share and respond. The following are suggestions to encourage a reluctant speaker to start talking:

  • Focus on encouraging, not forcing, the child to speak. Pressures, including punishment, bribery or consequences, don't work. Keep oral language times fun
  • Avoid direct questions. If you must ask a question try to make it a simple yes or no and accept a nod or shake of the head initially. Children are more likely to offer speech when they feel all their communication attempts are accepted
  • Remember that some children are naturally less talkative than others
  • Create a verbal climate around the child by talking with someone nearby, by commenting in a low key way on what s/he is doing and moving on before there is pressure on the child to respond
  • Help the child to take small gradual steps towards speaking in front of others. Once a child is beginning to use single words in a one to one setting encourage them to talk in a small group. Wait until the child feels comfortable speaking in a small group before building up to a larger group
  • Reinforce the child's talking by responding positively to the meaning rather than giving direct praise or drawing attention to the child. 

  Language development - what to do and when to refer

  (Please note, this diagram can be viewed more clearly in the attachments at the end of this web page).

  

  Refer if:

  The child shows deviation or a delay of more than 6-12 months from the Intelligibility Norms, or

  The child' s language compares adequately with age norms but your overall impression causes you to remain concerned about the child's communication.